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Related glossaries include Technologies Overview Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary, Imaging, Microarrays Biology Overview Biomaterials  

actuators: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

Atomic Force Microscopy AFM: Imaging glossary

attomole: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

BioMEMS Biological MicroElectro Mechanical Systems: BioMEMs & Biomedical Nanotechnology WORLD 2000 encompasses all interfaces and intersections of the life sciences and clinical disciplines with microsystems and nanotechnology. Areas of interest include, but are not limited to, micro- and nanotechnology for drug delivery, tissue engineering, harvesting, manipulation, amplification, and sequencing of nucleic acids, proteomics, microfluidics and miniaturized total analysis systems (microTAS), biosensors, molecular assembly, nanoscale imaging, and integrated systems. Contributions addressing all stages of research and development are welcome, from basic science fundamentals and technology concepts to product development, clinical investigations, and business and ethical considerations.  BioMEMs and Nanotechnology World 2001  Sept. 22-25 2001, Columbus OH.  Broader term MEMs.

biomimetic synthesis: Biomaterials glossary

bionanotechnology: Includes molecular motors, biomaterials, single molecule manipulation technologies, biochip technologies, etc.  [Asia Pacific Nanotechnology Initiatives: Update Asian Technology Information Program, Japan April 10, 2001]  www.atip.or.jp/public/atip.reports.01/atip01.018.pdf

bottom-up nanotechnology: Mostly chemists attempting to create structure by connecting molecules. [Noah Robischon "Nanotechnology and the battle to build smaller" Discovery Channel 1998] http://www.discovery.com/stories/technology/nanotech/nanotech.html Related term quantum dots Compare top-down nanotechnology.

cantilever: A lever-type beam that is held down at one end, is supported near the middle, and supports a load on the other end. Nichols, 1 [Mining, Mineral and related terms, US Bureau of Mines] http://imcg.wr.usgs.gov/dmmrt/dmmrt176.html#d3693  Diving boards and drawbridges are cantilevers. 

carbon nanotubes: (AKA. Bucky™ tubes), a member of the fullerene family. Individual single wall nanotubes have the electrical conductivity of copper or silicon, the thermal conductivity of diamond, and also happen to be the stiffest and strongest fibers known.  Their molecular perfection enables them to be manipulated using the versatile chemistry of carbon. [Carbon Nanotechnologies, Inc., US]  http://carbonnanotech.com/CNI_home.html 

Carbon nanotube tips have several advantages [as atomic force microscopy tips] , including high aspect ratio for imaging deep and narrow crevices, low tip- sample adhesion for gentle imaging, the ability to elastically buckle rather than break when large forces are applied, and the potential to achieve resolutions in the range of 1.0 nm or less. In addition, carbon nanotubes have well defined molecular structures so that it is possible to control their synthesis to make every tip with an identical structure and resolution. Carbon nanotubes can be selectively modified at their ends with organic or biological molecules to allow functional sensitive imaging. 

As described and developed by Charles Lieber and colleagues, carbon nanotube tips can be 'grown' directly by a process called chemical vapor deposition (CVD), using a reaction of ethylene with an electrodeposited iron catalyst in etched pores on commercial silicon- cantilever- tip assemblies (10). The resulting nanotubes have radii of 3-8 nm if multiwalled; single- walled tubes have smaller radii, on the order of 1-2 nm or less, and potentially less than 0.5 nm if certain conditions are met. [NIGMS "Single Molecule Detection and Manipulation Workshop" Single Molecule Fluorescence of Biomolecules and Complexes Protein Folding April 17-18, 2000] http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/reports/single_molecules.html#examples 

Broader term fullerenes.

cascade molecules: See under dendrimers

Chemical Vapor Deposition CVD: See under carbon nanotubes

combinatorial nanochemistry: 

DNA computing: Computers & computing  

Related terms molecular computing, nanocomputer, quantum computing. Or are any of these the same? 

DNA diagnostics - miniaturization of: In the areas of sample preparation and assay, it is clear that miniaturization is key. To reduce the size of samples by a factor of 10 or greater, barriers in microfluidics, micromachining, robotics, microchemistry, nucleic acid chemistry, and surface chemistry must be overcome. To implement miniaturized protocols accurately and efficiently, substantial automation of the process will be required. In the development of miniaturized systems, it is essential that the system can be adapted for high levels of parallelization.

Miniaturization poses significant technological risks. Currently, there exists no universally accepted precedent for the handling, replication, amplification, or cloning of DNA in nanoliter volumes. Due to the size and charge of the DNA molecule, and the relative instability of many of the enzymes involved in the sample preparation processes, nanoliter and less volumes may pose substantial challenges. In addition, interactions of the biological molecules with the surfaces of the reaction chambers must be minimized. For some methodologies, it is not clear what the optimal sample will be, so substantial improvement in DNA fragmentation technologies or DNA cloning vectors may be required for the ultimate efficient application to diagnostics. Improvements in any of these areas are likely to be of value to other non- DNA based diagnostic applications such as antibody screening protocols and enzyme based diagnostics, because miniaturized robotic or micro- electro mechanical systems developed for DNA could be modified to be used for these purposes. [NIST Advanced Technology Program "Tools for DNA Diagnostics" 1997] http://www.atp.nist.gov/atp/97wp-dna.htm  How much progress has been made?  

Broader term Clinical genomics glossary diagnostics 

dendrimer: A polymer having a regular branched structure; If suitably functionalized  may be used as a soluble support, in which case the desired, dendrimer- supported, material may be isolated by size- exclusion chromatography. Dendrimers may also be attached to a polymer and used as a solid support, with significantly increased loading over the initial resin. [IUPAC COMBINATORIAL CHEMISTRY]

Dendrimers consist of interconnected monomeric subunits that hybridize to form a tree- like structure. Each monomer is a double- stranded DNA molecule where the two strands share a region of sequence complementarity in the middle of molecule. [CHI Microarrays] 

A dendrimer (from Greek dendra for tree) is an artificially manufactured or synthesized molecule built up from branched units called monomers. Such processes involve working on the scale of nanometers (a nanometer is 10^-9 meter or a millionth of a millimeter). Technically, a dendrimer is a polymer, which is a large molecule comprised of many smaller ones linked together.  Dendrimers have some proven applications, and numerous potential applications. They have been used in the production of industrial adhesives. They are expected to serve as components in a variety of nanomachines. Dendrimers are of interest to researchers in medical technology, where they might help carry and deliver drugs in the body, or serve as replacements for plasma components. Dendrimers might also prove useful in the manufacture of nanoscale batteries and lubricants, catalysts, and herbicides. [whatis.com] 

Also known as "cascade molecules".

Dip Pen Nanolithography DPN: A new AFM [Atomic Force Microscopy] -based soft- lithography technique which was recently discovered in our [Chad Mirkin, Northwestern Univ.] labs. ... We have found that an important requirement for creating stable nanostructures is that the transported molecules anchor themselves to the substrate via chemisorption. When T-substituted alkanethiols are patterned on a gold substrate, a monolayer is formed in which the thiol headgroups form relatively strong bonds to the gold and the alkane chains extend roughly perpendicular to surface. The thiol lattice formed is identical to that of a monolayer obtained via solution deposition of alkanethiols on gold. Creating nanostructures using DPN is a single step process which does not require the use of resists. Using a conventional Atomic Force Microscope it is possible to achieve ultra- high resolution features - as small as 15 nm linewidths and ~ 5 nm spatial resolution, Figure 3a. For nanotechnology applications, it is not only important to pattern molecules in high resolution, but also to functionalize surfaces with patterns of two or more components. One of the most important attributes of DPN is that because the same device is used to image and write a pattern, patterns of multiple molecular inks can be formed on the same substrate in very high alignment, Figure 3b. With the aid of software created in- house, we have devised a DPN nanoplotter with which to write any type of complicated pattern. Just for fun we have reproduced Richard Feynmann's famous speech in which he predicts a bright future for nanotechnology. [Chad Mirkin group, Dept of Chemistry, Northwestern Univ., US "Surface Science and Dip Pen Nanolithography" 2001]  http://www.chem.northwestern.edu/~mkngrp/dippen.html

femtomole: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

fullerene: A new allotrope of carbon characterized by a closed cage structure consisting of an even number of three coordinate carbon atoms devoid of hydrogen atoms. This class was originally limited to closed-cage structures with twelve isolated five- membered rings, the rest being six- membered rings. [IUPAC Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature for the C₆₀-I_h and C₇₀-D_5h(6) Fullerenes, 2001] http://www.iupac.org/reports/provisional/abstract01/powell_301101.html

integrated microdevices IM:  DARPA/MTO wishes to capitalize on the investments in the manufacture, design and test of semiconductor integrated circuits by applying them to the emerging mixed technology systems area. The tight integration of microdevices in mixed technology systems, however, requires more than just an electronic domain analysis to understand and optimize the functionality of the design. Issues such as coupled energy domain simulation; three dimensional shape analysis before, and possibly after, integration; and mixed technology interconnect design and analysis need to be addressed as part of the design process. Key to enabling mixed technology systems is the development of a design environment that supports design and manufacture based upon many available mixed technology and electronic building blocks. In addition, design trade- offs, optimizations and synthesis need to be explored from an overall systems perspective in a mixed domain design and layout environment. The ultimate goal of the Composite CAD program is to provide a validated design environment that enables the reliable and predictable design of mixed technology systems. [Heather Dussault Microsystems Technology Office DARPA "Design for Mixed Technology Integration (Composite CAD)" 2001] http://www.darpa.mil/mto/CompCad/backgrounder.html

A new term, integrated microdevices (or IM's), is being introduced to identify this new type of monolithic system. DARPA seeks innovative proposals in the following areas: I. Process and shape based analysis for the process and device engineer, II. Circuit and physical layout synthesis and verification environments for the systems designer, and III. Applications which utilize the resulting design technology on integrated microdevices (IM's). The primary focus is on linking under- development shape based analysis tools into a functional circuit and physical layout environment. The circuit and layout environment could be enhanced from standard mixed signal design tool set but needs to allow the design and incorporation of mixed technology devices such as microelectromechanical (MEMS) resonators, optoelectronic transmitters and receivers, and microfluidic valves, channels and chambers. [Microsystems Technology Office, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, US Commerce Business Daily Feb. 11, 1997] http://www.darpa.mil/MTO/Solicitations/cbd/cbd_9717.html

Broader term microdevices

Interagency Working Group  on Nanoscience, Engineering and Technology IWGN, National Science and Technology Council NSTC, US   http://www.er.doe.gov/production/bes/IWGN.Research.Directions/cover.pdf

lab-on-a-chip: Microarrays glossary

laser tweezers: Laser tweezers  and related approaches are important for manipulation and isolation of subcellular organelles and structural components. [National Center for Research Resources "Integrated Genomics Technologies Workshop Report" Jan 1999]  http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/newspub/genomic.pdf    

Related terms optical trapping, optical tweezers;. Cell biology glossary 

MEMS MicroElectro Mechanical Systems: A technology that combines computers with tiny mechanical devices such as sensors, valves, gears, mirrors,  and actuators embedded in  semiconductor chips. Paul Saffo of the Institute for  the Future in Palo Alto, California, believes MEMS or what he calls analog  computing will be "the foundational technology of the next decade."  MEMS is also sometimes called smart matter. [whatis.com] 

Related terms micromachining. Narrower terms BioMEMS, NEMS

MOEMS MicroOpticalElectroMechanical systems: In addition to mechanical and electrical components, integrate waveguides or other optical features into the body of the silicon chip. [Intellisense Corp. FAQ] http://www.intellisense.com/memsinfocenter/memsinfocenterfaq.asp 

metal nanoshells: A new type of nanoparticle composed of a semiconductor or dielectric core coated with an ultrathin conductive layer.. By adjusting the relative core and shell thicknesses, metal nanoshells can be fabricated that will absorb or scatter light at any wavelength across the entire visible and infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum. [Halas Nanoengineering Group, Rice Univ. US, 2000] http://www.ece.rice.edu/%7Ehalas/research.html 

Broader term nanoparticle See also nanoshells

microchemistry: 1. The study of chemical reactions, using small quantities of materials, frequently less than 1 milligram or 1 milliliter, and often requiring special small apparatus and microscopical observation.  2. The application of chemical tests to minute objects or portions of matter, magnified by the use of the microscopy; distinguished from macrochemistry. [OMD] 

Related term micro- TAS

microchip: A microchip (sometimes just called a "chip") is a unit of packaged computer circuitry (usually called an integrated circuit) that is manufactured from a material such as silicon at a very small scale. Microchips are made for program logic (logic or microprocessor chips) and for computer memory (memory or RAM chips). Microchips are also made that include both logic and memory and for special purposes such as analog-to-digital conversion, bit slicing, and gateways. [whatis.com, Last updated on: Marc. 23, 2001]  

Related terms Microarrays glossary

microchip electrophoresis: Chromatography & electrophoresis glossary

microdevices: Narrower terms integrated microdevices, nanodevices, SED Single Electron Devices. Related terms microelectronics, microfluidics, micro- TAS.

MicroElectro Mechanical Systems: See MEMS.

microelectronics: Narrower terms MEMS, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, SED Single Electron Devices. Related term molecular electronics, semiconductors

microengineering: Related terms include MEMS, microfabrication, microfluidics, micromachining, NEMS, nanoengineering

microfabrication: This technology includes techniques used to manufacture integrated circuits (ICs), discrete microelectronic devices, MEMS devices such as sensors and actuators, and various  electro-optic devices.  [University of Louisville Microfabrication Lab] is currently serving as a  center for research activity in the areas of micromachined sensors and actuators, electro- optic devices, special- purpose microelectronic devices, planar waveguides, chemical transducers,  microstrip and microgap radiation detectors, micromachined nozzles, and micromachined ink- jet printheads. [Lutz Microfabrication Lab, Univ. of Louisville, US, 2000] http://mitghmr.spd.louisville.edu/lutz/int_hist.html  

Microfabrication holds the key to developing monolithically integrated devices capable of extremely high throughput. ... Microfabrication of surface characteristics provides a means of controlling the cell- environment interaction. Microfabricated structures also present new opportunities for cell, protein and nucleic acid separations and analysis- including high throughput single protein molecule sequencing. New approaches to analysis utilizing conductance techniques or tunneling probe microscopy merely emphasize the breadth of the potential of nanofabrication for future technology development relevant to biological issues.  [National Center for Research Resources "Integrated Genomics Technologies Workshop Report" Jan 1999]  http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/newspub/genomic.pdf   Related term microelectronics, nanofabrication. 

microfluidics: Within the microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and biological and chemical  detection communities, microfluidics refers to the research and development of microscale devices that handle very small volumes of fluids (nano- and picoliter volumes).  These devices may perform tasks such as DNA analysis or the separation of human blood cells. [Josh Molho, Graduate Research Assistant, Stanford Univ., US]   http://www.stanford.edu/~jmolho/research/research.html  Narrower term nanofluidics

microinjection: The insertion of a substance into a cell through a microelectrode. Typical applications include the injection of drugs, histochemical markers (such as horseradish peroxidase or lucifer yellow) and RNA or DNA in molecular biological studies. To extrude the substances through the very fine electrode tips, either hydrostatic pressure (pressure injection) or electric currents (ionophoresis) is employed. [OMD]

A technique for introducing a solution of DNA, protein, or other soluble material into a cell using a fine microcapillary pipet. [Life Sciences Dictionary]

micromachining: Techniques used to fabricate MEMS. Broader term microengineering

micromanipulation: See laser tweezers, optical tweezers, single molecule detection and manipulation

micromaterials: Narrower term nanomaterials Related terms Biomaterials glossary

micron: 10 ^-6     Symbol is u.

microparticles: Applications include calibration of flow cytometers, particle and hematology analyzers, confocal laser scanning microscopes and zetapotential measuring instruments; flow measurements in gases and liquids like Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA);  Particle Dynamics Analysis (PDA), and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV); medical diagnostics; separation phases for chromatography; support for immobilized enzymes; spacer in liquid crystal displays (LCD's); peptide synthesis; cell separation; tracers in environmental science; model systems in medicine, biochemistry, colloid chemistry, and aerosol research. [Microparticles GmbH, Berlin Germany] http://www.microparticles.de/micropart2e.html   Narrower term nanoparticles

Can be used for drug delivery.

micro-PET: Imaging glossary

microspheres: Microarrays glossary

microstructures: The last decade has seen rapid developments in the fabrication, characterization and conceptual understanding of synthetic microstructures in many different material systems including silicon, III-V and II-VI semiconductors, metals, ceramics and organics. The objective of this journal [Superlattices and Microstructures] is to provide a common interdisciplinary platform for the publication of the latest research results on all such "nanostructures" with dimensions in the range of 1 - 100 nm; the unifying theme here being the dimensions of these artificial structures rather than the material system in which they are fabricated. [Superlattices & Microstructures, Academic Press] http://www.academicpress.com/sm

microTas, microTotal Analysis Systems, uTAS: Although initial research dates back to the early 1970’s, the field of micro- TAS formally started in 1990, when Manz et al described the possibility of creating microsystems that would take care of many or all the traditional analytical steps involved in a biochemical analysis (sample introduction, handling, extraction, purification, concentration, filtration, analysis, detection) .... Micro- TAS offer many advantages over traditional analysis systems. Low power consumption and small reaction volumes, faster analysis, ultrasensitive detection, and minimal human intervention are key parameters in the development of micro- TAS. Most biochemical reactions take place in liquid environments. Hence, the development of MicroTAS is intrinsically linked to the design of liquid handling micro- devices. [Biomedical Applications Group (GAB) Centro Nacional de Microelectronica (CNM- IMB) Bellaterra, Spain, 2000]    Related term microchemistry  

Broader term analysis - molecular Assays, labeling, signaling & detection glossary

miniaturization: Desirable for many technologies for overall cost reduction (including reduction in the amount of reagents and analytes). Important to remember that building space is often the least available and most expensive component of an overall laboratory budget.

mole: Biomolecules glossary

molecular computing: Computers & computing

molecular electronics: Seeks to use individual molecules to perform functions in electronic circuitry now performed by semiconductor devices.  Individual molecules are hundreds of times smaller than the smallest features conceivably attainable by semiconductor technology.  Because it is the area taken up by each electronic element that matters, electronic devices constructed from molecules will be hundreds of times smaller than their semiconductor-based counterparts.  Moreover, individual molecules are easily made exactly the same by the billions and trillions.  The dramatic reduction in size, and the sheer enormity of numbers in manufacture, are the principle benefits promised by the field of molecular electronics. [California Molecular Electronics Corp. 2001]  http://www.calmec.com/molecula1.htm 

Research is currently focused on the development of methodologies for self- assembly of metal and semiconductor nanocrystals for use as nanoscale electronic devices. Electrical transport properties of layers of gold nanoparticles self- assembled between metal electrodes on silicon oxide surfaces is being studied in detail. The assembled nanoparticles are separated by specific molecular linkers and the layers are typically a few monolayers thick...l Another active area of molecular electronics research is the development of strategies for fabrication of molecular devices using biological assembly principles. To this end, we have recently employed synthetic DNA as a tool for the assembly of metallic nanoparticles. [NMRC (Ireland) Nanotechnology Research, Scientific Report 1999] http://www.nmrc.ie/reports/1999/scientific/scinano.html

Related term: single molecule

molecular motors: Protein based machines that are involved in or cause movement such as the rotary devices (flagellar motor and the F1 ATPase) or the devices whose movement is directed along cytoskeletal filaments (myosin, kinesin and dynein motor families). [MeSH]

molecular nanoscience: An emerging interdisciplinary field that combines the study of molecular/ biomolecular systems with the science and technology of nanoscale structures. The potential applications are very broad and include such possibilities as 1) the use of biomolecules and cellular systems to self- assemble nanoelectronic circuitry and other nanoscale structures and 2) the use of lamellar host frameworks containing nanopores that can be tailored to include guest molecules for separation of chemicals for pharmaceutical and other applications.  [Univ. of Minnesota, US, Office of the Vice President for Research and Dean of the Graduate School, Interdisciplinary Research and Post baccalaureate Education Program, Abstracts of Awards made for FY 2001]   http://www.research.umn.edu/research/AY2001.htm  

Narrower terms nanobiology, nanochemistry, nanoengineering, nanophysics, nanostructures.

molecular nanotechnology: See molecular nanoscience, nanotechnology.

NEMS Nano ElectroMechanical Systems: The time is ripe for a concerted exploration of nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) ­ i.e. machines, sensors, computers and electronics that are on the nanoscale. Such efforts are under way in my group at Caltech, and in several others around the world. The potential payoffs are likely to be enormous and could benefit a diverse range of fields, from medicine and biotechnology to the foundations of quantum mechanics. [Michael Roukes "Nanoelectromechanical systems face the future" Physics World 14 (2) Feb. 2001] http://physicsweb.org/article/world/14/2/8

nano: 10 ^-9  Assays, Labels, Signals & Detection glossary 

nanoarray: Microarrays glossary

nanobarcodes: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

nanobiology: Many fundamental biological functions are carried out by molecular machineries that have the sizes of 1-100 nm. You find many examples in molecular biology and cell biology: single enzymes, transcription complex, ribosome, transport complex, nuclear pore, and so on. To understand the functions of  these machineries, one has to describe their movements, changes in their shapes, and their localization. This means the mechanistic study is equivalent to dynamic morphology at this level of size, making a new field that merges mechanistic biology and morphology. The emergence of nanobiology depended on the invention of nano- technology: scanning probe microscopy, modern optical techniques, and micro- manipulating techniques. This concept of nanobiology was first proposed in a group study named "Biological Nano- Mechanisms", which was supported by Japanese Agency of Science and Technology (1992-1997). [National Institute of Genetics, Japan]   http://www.nig.ac.jp/labs/BioMech/Nanobiology.html

nanochemistry: To analyze ultrasmall systems you need ultrasmall tools.  Whether dealing with single molecules or single cells, the precision and sensitivity of the manipulation and detection schemes used are absolutely critical.  We have been interested in confining single molecules in solution to perform chemistry at the lowest level possible,¹ as well as in delivering small volumes of chemicals to single subcellular organelles.  By mimicking what nature has developed over billions of years to conduct chemistry in ultrasmall packets (cells and organelles), we have arrived at what is to date the smallest test tubes known - synthetic liposomes which are manipulated and electrofused to mix their contents.²  Our liposomes have volumes of a few femtoliters or less, matching the probe volumes of standard single molecule detection techniques, and are made in minutes by a protocol developed in this lab. [Clyde Wilson "Solution Nanochemistry" Dept. of Chemistry, Stanford Univ., US]  http://www.stanford.edu/group/Zarelab/Sections/Solution.html

nanochip: In Friday's issue [Aug. 1, 2001] of the journal Science, physicists from IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center [Philip G. Collins, Michael S. Arnold and Phaedon Avouris] announce their fabrication of the world's first array of transistors made from carbon nanotube.  [Mark Anderson "Mega Steps toward the Nanochip" Wired News Aug. 1, 2001]  http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,43324,00.html

nanoclusters: A nanocluster or nanocrystal is a fragment of solid comprising somewhere between a few atoms to a few tens of thousands of atoms. Nanoclusters are therefore a novel state of matter with properties that are neither those of a bulk crystal nor those of individual atoms and molecules.  Over the past 10 years huge advances have been made both in the synthesis of size- tunable, monodisperse (i.e. size- selected) nanoclusters of various chemical compositions and in the development of techniques for their assembly into nanostructured solids (facilitating the synthesis of what have been termed "designer materials"). [Nottingham Univ. Nanoscience Group, UK, 2001] http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/~ppzstm/nanoclusters/nanoclusters.htm

nanocomputer: A computer whose fundamental components measure only a few nanometers in size. State of the art current computer components are no smaller than about 350 nm. [Mnemosyne Mnews 21 (3)  January 2001 " The Nanotechnology Initiative and Future Electronics" Presentation by Gail J. Brown, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson Air Force Base,  November 16, 2000]  http://users.erinet.com/3277/Mnemosyne%20Mnews%20Jan%2001.pdf   

Related terms: DNA computing, molecular computing, quantum computing?

nanocrystals: A nanocrystal typically has a diameter of between 1 and 10 nm and may contain as few as a hundred or as many as tens of thousands of atoms. Many fundamental properties of nanocrystals depend strongly on their size in smooth and predictable ways. Examples include the external field required to switch a magnetized particle of great importance in magnetotactic bacteria and in hard disk drives and the color of light emission from a semiconductor used for the fluorescent labeling of cells and in lasers. This facile tuning of properties by size variation is one reason why nanocrystals are widely viewed as promising components for new artificial optical and electrical materials. ["Enhanced: Naturally Aligned Nanocrystals" A. P. Alivisatos Science 289 (5480): 736-7 Aug. 4, 2000 ]

nanodevices: Scientists believe nanoscale devices may lead to computer chips with billions of transistors, instead of millions - which is the typical range in today's semiconductor technology. The more transistors crammed on a chip, the more powerful it is. "This technology has the potential to replace existing manufacturing methods for integrated circuits, which may reach their practical limits within the next decade when Moore's Law eventually hits a brick wall," said physicist Bernard Yurke of Bell Labs. DNA, which provides the molecular blueprints for all living cells, is an ideal tool for making nanoscale devices. "We took advantage of how pieces of DNA - with its billions of possible variations - lock together in only one particular way, like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle," Yurke said. ["Researchers from Lucent Technologies' Bell Labs and University of Oxford create first DNA motors" Lucent Technologies press release, Aug. 9, 2000] http://www.lucent.com/press/0800/000809.bla.html

Broader term microdevices

nanoelectronics: Nanoelectronics in Japan and Korea tends to focus on next generation semiconductor devices and single electron devices (SED). [Asia Pacific Nanotechnology Initiatives: Update Asian Technology Information Program, Japan April 10, 2001]  www.atip.or.jp/public/atip.reports.01/atip01.018.pdf  

Broader term microelectronics

nanoelectrospray Ms/MS: Mass spectrometry glossary

nanoengineering: Nanoengineering and nanotechnology are concerned with developing structures and systems that use and enhance the significantly improved properties of their nanoscale components. By learning how to control feature size and to assemble appropriate "building blocks," it should be possible to enhance the properties of materials and to create functional devices with greatly improved or entirely new functions. This goal, however, requires both discovering the underlying principles and developing the tools needed to apply them systematically. [Oak Ridge National Laboratory (US) Institutional Plan FY 2001­ FY 2005 INTERNAL REVIEW DRAFT May 31, 2000] http://www.er.doe.gov/dip/ORNL2000/ORNLird.pdf

We use chemistry to construct nanostructures and their composites, then focus our attention on the electronic, optical, and transport properties of these nanostructures and the macroscopic films and materials that can be constructed from them. This research lies at the common frontier of chemistry, condensed matter physics, optics, and bioengineering. [Halas Nanoengineering Group, Rice Univ. US, 2000] http://www.ece.rice.edu/%7Ehalas/research.html  

Related terms microengineering, nanoscience, self-assembly.

nanofabrication: Nanofabrication methods can be divided into two categories: top- down methods, which carve out or add aggregates of molecules to a surface, and bottom- up methods, which assemble atoms or molecules into nanostructures. [George M. Whitesides and J. Christopher Love "The art of building small" Scientific American 285 (3): 39-47, Sept. 2001]

Fabrication on the nanotechnology scale. 

Broader term microfabrication

nanofluidics: Researchers at Cornell University are using nanotechnology to build microscopic silicon devices with features comparable in size to DNA, proteins and other biological molecules -- to count molecules, analyze them, separate them, perhaps even work with them one at a time. [Cornell Univ. "Tiny silicon devices measure, sort and count biomolecules" Feb. 16, 2001] Newswise] http://www.newswise.com/articles/2001/2/NANFLUID.CNS.html  

Broader term microfluidics

nanogenomics: Genomics glossary

nanoimprinting: Sometimes called soft lithography. A technique that is very simple in concept, and totally analogous to traditional mould- or form-based printing technology, but that uses moulds (masters) with nanoscale features. As with the printing press, the potential for mass production is clear. There are two forms of nanoimprinting, one that uses pressure to make indentations in the form of the mould on a surface, the other, more akin to the printing press, that relies on the application of "ink" applied to the mould to stamp a pattern on a surface. Other techniques such as etching may then follow [Nanotechnology]

nanolabels: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

nanomachines: Nanomachines somewhat similar to those envisaged by Molecular Nanotechnology already exist: they are biomacromolecules, which are nanoengines acting both as thermal engines and as informational engines like the so- called "assemblers" (cf. Molecular Nanotechnology), but the latter are not "self- programmed" like nanobiomachines are. The autopoietic character of nanobiomachines involves a physics of very different kind, largely unknown at present. [International Nanobiological Testbed Ltd. "Approaching Nanobiology and Nanotechnology" Part I, 1999] http://www.nanobiology.com/Nanosci.htm

nanomanufacturing: The science that is carried out within the CNSI [California NanoSystems Institute] may be classified according to: The development of the chemical, biological, and materials approaches toward the fabrication and assembly of the fundamental nanoscale building blocks. This science includes the synthesis of traditional materials (e.g. semiconductors) that are designed to exhibit nontraditional behavior (e.g. ferromagnetism). It also includes the development of manufacturing routes for traditional devices (e.g. quantum well lasers) from nontraditional routes (e.g., biomimetic synthesis). It further includes the development of manufacturing routes for nontraditional devices (e.g. photonic band gap materials) from nontraditional routes (e.g., 3D assembly of modulated dielectrics). At the heart of these types of approaches is the concept of bottom- up manufacturing. Such an approach to manufacturing, which is inherent to all biological systems, is in contrast to all modern manufacturing approaches, such as semiconductor processing, which are classified as top- down manufacturing. [California Nanosystems Institute, Univ. of California - Los Angeles, US "Research- Building Blocks]  http://www.cnsi.ucla.edu/research/default.htm#blocks

nanomaterials: Materials at the nanometer scale.  

Narrower terms nanoclusters, nanocrystals, nanoparticles, nanowires, quantum dots. Broader term micromaterials

In Asia includes nanopowder, nanoparticles, metal, biomaterials, carbon materials, etc.  [Asia Pacific Nanotechnology Initiatives: Update Asian Technology Information Program, Japan April 10, 2001]  www.atip.or.jp/public/atip.reports.01/atip01.018.pdf

nanoparticles: Both synthetic (bottom- up) and transformative (top- down) fabrication rely on the availability of building block materials and artifacts such as quantum dots, nanotubes and nanofibers, ultrathin films and nanocrystals. These also include their assemblies in coatings, dispersions, colloids, aerogels and nanoporous structures, as well as organic dendrimers, block copolymers and nanocomposites, and also biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids etc. Despite the multitude of nanoparticles that have been generated in the laboratory, there is a need for fabrication and proliferation of a much larger variety of such nanomaterials.  ... Serial direct structuring methods include robotic nanoassembly by the atomic force microscope (AFM) and strain- directed assembly, while parallel soft lithography techniques comprise various nanoimprinting, molding, embossing processes, as well as DNA- directed assembly etc. Alternatives to such technologies are offered by miniaturization of hard microlithography, including X-ray (LIGA), electron or ion lithography, and molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Other processes address 3-D templating and growth of aerogels, sol-  gel methods, laser or plasma vaporization and condensation, laser- guided particle transport and electrophoretic techniques. ... Instrumentation and Equipment for Characterization and Processing - As already mentioned, analogous technologies are presently used for both analysis (sensing) and synthesis (actuation) of nanostructures. These instruments include the various scanning probe (SPM, such as AFM) and near- field microscopes (NFM); electron beam (SEM, TEM), ion beam, and molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) equipment; optical (laser) tweezers, X-ray spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instruments; large- scale synchrotron, neutron and photon sources etc. To improve throughput and efficiency, parallel probe arrays, distributed/ scanned beams and lab- on- a- chip MEMS, including chemical and biological array sensors and actuators, must be developed as robust, miniaturized alternatives to serial, large-scaled instrumentation. Integration of equipment across multiple scales, exemplified by a chain of a manipulator with a MEMS micro- manipulator as the end effector, to process nano- electro- mechanical structures (NEMS) is necessary to process multi- scale nanostructured parts. Instrumentation research must also strive to improve resolution and bandwidth, commensurate to the scale and dynamics of nanostructure interaction phenomena that must be monitored and regulated. Last, teleoperation of large and costly equipment for telecharacterization and telefabrication via the internet is desirable for collaborative and shared use.  [National Science Foundation, Directorate for Engineering "Nanomanufacturing"2001] http://www.eng.nsf.gov/dmii/Message/MPES/NM/nm.htm

Nanoparticles, including nano- clusters, [nano]- layers, [nano]- tubes, and two- and three- dimensional structures in the size range between the dimensions of molecules and 50 nm (or in a broader sense, submicron sizes as a function of materials and targeted phenomena), are seen as tailored precursors for building up functional nanostructures. [R&D Status and Trends in Nanoparticles, Nanostructured Materials, and Nanodevices in the US, Proceedings of the May 8-9, 1997 Workshop, Jan. 1998 Richard W. Siegel, WTEC Panel Chair] http://itri.loyola.edu/nano/US.Review/01_01.htm

Advances in Assays, Molecular Labels, Signaling  & Detection  June 27-28, 2002, Washington DC will cover Nanoparticles and other novel labels. 

Related terms carbon nanotubes, nanocrystals, quantum dots Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary, others?

nano-PET: Imaging glossary

nanophysics: The nanoscale physics group uses various experimental techniques to examine the physical properties of objects in the nanoscale size range, that is, a little bit larger than the size of atoms. Some interesting physical properties at this range include conductivity of small numbers of atoms and molecules, forces arising between objects on this scale, and the transition between the quantum nature of a few atoms and a large number of atoms. [Nanoscale Physics, Purdue Univ., 2000] http://www.physics.purdue.edu/nanophys/  

Related term quantum physics

nanopore: Nanopore technology is an elegant concept. A membrane with very small channels (a few nanometers in diameter), called nanopores, separates two solutions. When a voltage is applied across the membrane, charged biomolecules migrate through the pores in a controlled manner. ... As each nucleotide passes through the nanopore, an electronic signature is produced that can be used to characterize it. The nanopore's size is such that it permits only a single nucleic acid strand to pass through it at any one time. Therefore the technology can be used to sequentially measure a biopolymer's properties along its length.

Research in the field of computational biology will play a significant role in the development of nanopore technology. It will be used to help optimize experimental strategies and designs, and to create the mathematical methods needed to interpret the data generated.

The potential capabilities of nanopore technology are very broad. Nanopore technology can distinguish between and count a variety of different molecules in a complex mixture. For example, nanopores could discriminate between hybridized or unhybridized unknown RNA and DNA molecules that differ by a single nucleotide only. Compared to existing techniques, nanopore technology is expected to provide direct characterization of individual nucleic acid and protein molecules directly derived from biological samples, thereby making it applicable to a wide set of analyses. Because nanopore technology is in the very early stages of its development, its advantages are not fully characterized. [Agilent Laboratories "Threading a needle with DNA, June 1, 2001] http://www.labs.agilent.com/news/2001features/fea_nanopore.html

nanoscale: 1 to 100 billionths of a meter. At the nanoscale, physics, chemistry, biology, materials science, and engineering converge toward the same principles and tools. The nanoscale is not just another step toward miniaturization, but a qualitatively new scale. The new behavior is dominated by quantum mechanics, material confinement in small structures, large interfacial volume fraction, and other unique properties, phenomena and processes. Many current theories of matter at the microscale have critical lengths of nanometer dimensions. These theories will be inadequate to describe the new phenomena at the nanoscale. ... Innovative nanoscale properties and functions will be achieved through the control of matter at its building blocks: atom- by- atom, molecule- by- molecule, and nanostructure- by- nanostructure. Nanotechnology will include the integration of these nanoscale structures into larger material components, systems, and architectures. However, within these larger scale systems the control and construction will remain at the nanoscale.  [National Science Foundation, Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Report of Sept 28-29 2000 workshop, Mar. 2001] http://itri.loyola.edu/nano/societalimpact/nanosi.pdf

nanoscience: Nanoscience is primarily the extension of existing sciences into the realms of the extremely small (nanomaterials, nanochemistry, nanobio, nanophysics, etc.) while nanoengineering represents the extension of the engineering fields into the nano- scale realm (nanofabrication, nanodevices, etc.). [Mnemosyne Mnews 21 (3)  January 2001 " The Nanotechnology Initiative and Future Electronics" Presentation by Gail J. Brown, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,  Nov.16, 2000]  http://users.erinet.com/3277/Mnemosyne%20Mnews%20Jan%2001.pdf   

Narrower terms nanobiology, nanobiotechnology, nanochemistry, nanoengineering, nanophysics, nanotechnology, quantum physics. Related term nanotechnology

The exponential growth of nanoscience is largely due to the development of new instruments and related techniques that are used to "routinely" probe and manipulate material at the atomic and molecular level. Scanning probe microscopies, analytical electron- beam techniques, epitaxial growth facilities, and synchrotron radiation sources are all opening huge opportunities. [Univ. of British Columbia, Canada "The U.B.C. Quantum Structures and Information Cluster under the Canadian Research Chairs Initiative" Nov. 2000] http://www.physics.ubc.ca/CRC/quantum.html

nanoshells: At Rice University in Texas, however, tiny constructions called nanoshells have shown promise for fighting cancer and administering drugs. The devices are simple enough: beads about three millionths of an inch wide, with an outer metal wall and an inner silicon core. But by varying the size ratio between wall and core, electrical and computer engineer Naomi Halas and her Rice colleagues can tune the shells precisely to absorb or scatter specific wavelengths of light. {NASA, Space Research News, Oct. 26, 2001] http://spaceresearch.nasa.gov/news.htmlIs this the same as metal nanoshells?

nanospheres: Self-assembling nanospheres that fit inside each other like Russian dolls are one form of a broad range of submicroscopic spheres ... The durable silica spheres, which range in size from 2 to 50 nanometers, form in a few seconds, are small enough to be introduced into the body, and have uniform pores that could enable controlled release of drugs. The spheres can absorb organic and inorganic substances including small particles of iron, which means they can be controlled by magnets and the contents released as needed. [Sandia National Labs news release "Self- assembled spheres may be helpful against disease or terrorism" Mar. 19, 1999]  http://www.sandia.gov/media/nanos.htm  

See also Microarrays glossary under microspheres

nanostructures: The NanoStructures Laboratory (NSL) at MIT (formerly the Submicron Structures Laboratory) develops techniques for fabricating surface structures with feature sizes in the range from nanometers to micrometers, and uses these structures in a variety of research projects. The NSL includes facilities for lithography (photo, holographic electron beam, ion beam, and x-ray), etching (chemical, plasma and reactive- ion), lift- off, electroplating, sputter deposition and e- beam evaporation. Much of the equipment and nearly all of the methods utilized in the NSL are developed in house. Generally, commercial IC processing equipment cannot achieve the resolution needed for nanofabrication, and it lacks the required flexibility. The research projects fall into four major categories: development of submicron and nanometer fabrication technology; short- channel semiconductor devices, quantum- effect electronics, and optoelectronics; periodic structures for x-ray optics, spectroscopy and atomic interferometry, crystalline films on non- lattice- matching substrates. [NanoStructures Lab, MicroSystems Technologies Labs, MIT, US http://www-mtl.mit.edu/MTL/NSL.html   

Narrower terms dendrimers, fullerenes, nanoclusters, nanotubes, quantum dots.

nanosystems: There is currently an intense exploration to determine patterns of gene expression that encode for normal biological processes such as cell replication and signal transduction and to understand disease that results from alterations in normal gene expression. Such alternations can result from environmental factors, hereditary defects, developmental errors and aging. In the future, symptom- based descriptions of disease will give way to a molecular mechanistic nomenclature with treatments aimed at molecular modification of alterations that produce cell phenotypes of disease. Out of this research will arise molecular diagnostics and molecular therapeutic treatments. ... Molecular probes are used to study basic biology and the resultant knowledge will lead to the development of molecular tools for molecular diagnostics and therapeutics. [California Nanosystems Institute, Univ. of California - Los Angeles, US "Research- Molecular Medicine]  http://www.cnsi.ucla.edu/research/default.htm#molecularmed

nanotechnology: The technology arising from efforts to exploit the novel and improved  properties that phenomena and processes exhibit at the scale between single atoms/ molecules and bulk behavior (approximately 10^-9 to 10^-7 meters). [National Science Foundation, US NSF Online Engineering News "Nano- Scale Bioengineering Grants Break New Ground" Feb.2001]  http://www.eng.nsf.gov/engnews/2000/00-14_Nanoscale_Bioengineering/00-14_nanoscale_bioengineering.htm  

Emerging as a new field enabling the creation and application of materials, devices, and systems at atomic and molecular levels and the exploitation of novel properties that emerge at the nanometer scale. Many areas of biomedicine are expected to benefit from nanotechnology including sensors for use in the laboratory, the clinic, and within the human body; new formulations and routes for drug delivery; and biocompatible, high- performance materials for use in implants.  Examples of  potential uses of nanotechnology in biomedicine include the early detection and treatment of disease and  the development of “smart”, rejection- resistant implants that will respond appropriately as the body’s needs change. [NIH, Nanoscience and nanotechnology grant applications,  January 20, 2000] http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-00-016.html  

Although research in this field dates back to Richard P. Feynman's classic talk in 1959, the term nanotechnology was first coined by K. Eric Drexler in 1986 in the book Engines of Creation. In the popular press, the term nanotechnology is sometimes used to refer to any sub- micron process, including lithography. Because of this, many scientists are beginning to use the term molecular nanotechnology when talking about true nanotechnology at the molecular level. [ZD Webopedia] 

Related terms  Interagency Working Group on Nanoscience, Engineering and Technology IWGN; 

nanotubes: A one dimensional fullerene (a convex cage of atoms with only hexagonal and/ or pentagonal faces) with a cylindrical shape. Carbon nanotubes discovered in 1991 by Sumio Iijima resemble rolled up graphite, although they can not really be made that way. Depending on the direction that the tubes appear to have been rolled (quantified by the 'chiral vector'), they are known to act as conductors or semiconductors. Nanotubes are a proving to be useful as molecular components for nanotechnology. [about.com] Narrower term carbon nanotubes (or is this equivalent?) Broader term fullerenes

Nanotube Site http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/nanotube.html

nanowells: Microarrays glossary

nanowires: Molecular wires millions of times smaller in diameter than a human hair. Described in a paper appearing in the February 23, 2001 issue of the journal Science, these "nanowires," so called because they have dimensions on the order of a nanometer (a billionth of a meter), have high rates of electron transfer with very low resistance. "That means less impedance to the flow of current, with little or no loss of energy," says chemist John Smalley, the lead Brookhaven researcher on the study. [News release Brookhaven National Lab (US) "Scientists Investigate "Nanowires" With Very Low Resistance" Feb. 22, 2001]http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/bnlpr022201.htm

National Nanotechnology Initiative: US federal government agencies participating include the National Science Foundation, the Department of Defense, the National Institute of Health, NASA, and NIST. [National Nanotechnology Initiative website] http://www.nano.gov/

OEIS OptoElectronic Integrated Systems: research is currently focused on the development of methodologies for self-assembly of micron scale objects with the objective of fabricating optoelectronic integrated systems (OEIS) [RP25].   In an extension of our integrated microarray research, electronically addressable test chips, comprising n x n matrices of microelectrodes each bearing photolithographically defined oligonucleotides of programmed base sequence, have been developed as experimental platforms for the self- assembly and interconnection of oligonucleotide modified optoelectronic components, e.g., LEDs and photodetectors. In this process, DNA- modified optoelectronic components may be transported to the surface of a microelectrode using electrophoresis whereupon sequence specific oligonucleotide interactions direct component localisation and binding. [NMRC (Ireland) Nanotechnology Research, Scientific Report 1999] http://www.nmrc.ie/reports/1999/scientific/scinano.html

optical trapping: Optical trapping of small particles by forces exerted by laser radiation pressure has recently been introduced into the study of biological systems. The single- beam gradient trap (optical tweezers) employs a single strongly focused laser beam. In this case, particle size is much less than and the laser light exerts a force pulling the particle toward the high focus part of the beam. Such manipulation of micron- sized (particle size larger than ) particles is also feasible. Manipulations of cells and intracellular organelles have extended to laser cutting (scissors) and to use of two- photon systems. [National Center for Research Resources "Integrated Genomics Technologies Workshop Report" Jan 1999]  http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/newspub/genomic.pdf 

A method for non- mechanical manipulation of small particles. Small transparent objects (such as glass- spheres or yeast cells) can be trapped using focused laser light. The method has many possible applications in various fields of physics and biology. The optical trap is based on the concept of photon momentum transfer. Photon momentum was proposed by Planck and used by Einstein to explain the photo-electric effect.  [Atomic Physics, Dept. of Experimental Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg University, Sweden 1998]   http://fy.chalmers.se/f3a/tweezers/front.html 

Related terms laser tweezers, optical tweezers 

optical tweezers: Developed at Bell Labs in the 1980s ... The method relies on the fact that light waves exert minute forces as well as transmitting energy. If an object is small enough -  in this case about 5 micrometers across -- it can be "trapped" or held still by a focused beam of laser light. When the laser's position changes, the trapped object moves too ... The new technique allows researchers to make measurements not possible with conventional methods and should make it easier to judge the effectiveness of inhibitors and other medicines at a variety of concentrations. ["Optical tweezers measure stickiness" NIST Technology at a glance, Winter 1997] http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/taglance/tag97win/tag97win.htm  

The single- beam gradient trap, or the optical tweezers, is a unique tool for micro- manipulation, enabling its user to access tiny objects without any mechanical contact. It uses a focussed laser beam to trap and manipulate microscopic particles in the size range 100 nm - 100 mm. The trap consists of a single laser beam which attracts transparent dielectric particles towards its focal region. The laser beam is introduced into a conventional optical microscope, so that the same objective is used to view and trap particles immersed in a liquid. [Atomic Physics, Dept. of Experimental Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg University, Sweden, 1997]   http://fy.chalmers.se/f3a/tweezers/front.html 

Related terms laser tweezers; optical traps (How similar are these to optical tweezers?)

picomole: See Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

quantum computing: Computers & computing

quantum dots: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

quantum nanophysics: See under quantum physics

quantum physics: Describes fundamental electronic and optical properties of matter at microscopic level and wave and interference phenomena in particular . Quantum electronics, quantum optics and optoelectronics are important areas of application - atomic clocks, lasers, light emitting diodes, optical fibers, tunnel diodes and superconducting systems are important and well-known examples. The trend towards faster  and more  complicated microprocessors and microelectronics has resulted in electronic components now approaching the domains of quantum physics at research level. In about 20 years time, miniaturization will also be halted in commercial applications. It will then probably utilize electronic wave phenomena and single- electron effects in semiconductor components and systems and also to create more complicated transistor components connected in more complicated ways where quantum phenomena, cooperative phenomena and even superconductivity may be important for function. "QNANO" - quantum nanophysics - will probably provide a target for research and development in semiconductor physics, molecular electronics and bioelectronics in the foreseeable future  [Applied Quantum Physics at the School of Physics and Engineering Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, 1998]  http://www.chalmers.se/researchprofile/aqp.html

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy: Imaging glossary

self-assembly: Biomaterials glossary

semiconductor: Material whose conductivity, due to charges of both signs, is normally in the range between that of metals and insulators and in which the electric charge carrier density can be changed by external means. [IUPAC Compendium]

International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, International SEMATECH  http://public.itrs.net/Home.htm

sensors: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

single beam gradient trap: See under optical tweezers

single cell detection: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

Single Electron Devices SED: Nanoscale devices that control the movement of individual electrons, may one day make it possible for integrated circuits to have as many as 10 billion electronic devices in a square centimeter, a density 1000 times greater than that believed feasible for conventional integrated circuits. In development since the mid- 1980s, these devices consist of two electrodes (typically 30 nm wide) separated by a 1 nm- deep insulating layer through which single electrons can tunnel. These devices have many potential applications, from building more sensitive measurement devices to understanding fundamental problems in physics. In the last several years, researchers have built two- junction devices that share a middle electrode. These devices are called "single- electron transistors," because, like conventional transistors, their current can be controlled by modifying the surface charge on the middle electrode, making it an ideal element for an integrated circuit. A circuit made of single- electron devices, however, would have to be operated at a temperature of 4 K or below to reduce thermal effects which disturb the movements of single electrons in the solid. (Scientific American, June 1992.) [American Institute of Physics  Bulletin of Physics News June 19, 1992] http://www.aip.org/enews/physnews/1992/split/pnu085-3.htm   

Broader terms microdevices, microelectronics, nanodevices.

single electron transistors: See under SED Single Electron Devices

single molecule detection & manipulation: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

smart matter: See under MEMS.

top- down nanotechnology: Engineers taking existing devices, such as transistors, and making them smaller. Top- down or mechanical nanotechnology will have the greatest impact on our everyday lives in the near future. [Noah Robischon "Nanotechnology and the battle to build smaller" Discovery Channel 1998] http://www.discovery.com/stories/technology/nanotech/nanotech.html  

Related term soft lithography  Compare bottom- up nanotechnology

transducers: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

uTAS: See microTAS.

yoctomole: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

zeptomole: Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

Bibliography

Nanotechnology glossary, NanotechNews.com, 200+ definitions   http://www.nanotechnews.com/nano/glossary  

Alpha glossary index

IUPAC definitions are reprinted with the permission of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.